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The Most Polluted Cities in the U.S.

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The following content is sponsored by the National Public Utilities Council

Bubble chart showing the 21 most polluted cities in the U.S. based on the American Lung Association's 2024 State of the Air report, with a bar chart showing the economic benefit of reducing PM2.5 concentrations, by sector.

The Most Polluted U.S. Cities in 2024

According to the World Health Organization, air pollution is responsible for 7 million deaths annually, and could cost the global economy between $18–25 trillion by 2060 in annual welfare costs, or roughly 4–6% of world GDP.

And with predictions that 7 in 10 people will make their homes in urban centers by mid-century, cities are fast becoming one of the frontlines in the global effort to clear the air.

In this visualization, we use 2024 data from the State of the Air report from the American Lung Association to show the most polluted cities in the United States.

What is Air Pollution?

Air pollution is a complex mixture of gases, particles, and liquid droplets and can have a variety of sources, including wildfires and cookstoves in rural areas, and road dust and diesel exhaust in cities.

There are a few kinds of air pollution that are especially bad for human health, including ozone and carbon monoxide, but here we’re concerned with fine particulate matter that is smaller than 2.5 microns, or PM2.5 for short.

The reason for the focus is because at that small size, particulate matter can penetrate the bloodstream and cause all manner of havoc, including cardiovascular disease, lung cancer, and chronic pulmonary disease.

The American Lung Association has set an annual average guideline of 9 µg/m³ for PM2.5, however, the World Health Organization has set a much more stringent limit of 5 µg/m³.

The 21 Worst Polluted Cities in the U.S.

Here are the top 21 most polluted cities in the U.S., according to their annual average PM2.5 concentrations:

RankCity, StateAnnual average concentration, 2020-2022 (µg/m3)
1Bakersfield, CA18.8
2Visalia, CA18.4
3Fresno, CA17.5
4Eugene, OR14.7
5Bay Area, CA14.3
6Los Angeles, CA14.0
7Sacramento, CA13.8
8Medford, OR13.5
9Phoenix, AZ12.4
10Fairbanks, AK12.2
11Indianapolis, IN11.9
12Yakima, WA11.8
13Detroit, MI11.7
14Chico, CA11.6
14Spokane, WA11.6
15Houston, TX11.4
16El Centro, CA11.1
17Reno, NV11.0
18Pittsburgh, PA10.9
19Kansas City, KS10.8
19Las Vegas, NV10.8

Note: The American Lung Association uses Core Based Statistical Areas in its city and county rankings, which have been shortened here to the area’s principal city, or metro area in the case of the Bay Area, CA.

Six of the top seven cities are in California, and four in the state’s Central Valley, a 450-mile flat valley that runs parallel to the Pacific coast, and bordered by the Coast and Sierra Nevada mountain ranges. As a result, when pollution from the big population centers on the coast is carried inland by the wind—cities #5 and #6 on the list—it tends to get trapped in the valley.

Bakersfield (#1), Visalia (#2), and Fresno (#3) are located at the drier and hotter southern end of the valley, which is worse for air quality. The top three local sources of PM2.5 emissions in 2023 were farms (20%), forest management / agricultural waste burning (20%), and road dust (14%).

Benefit to Economy

While the health impacts are generally well understood, less well known are the economic impacts.

Low air quality negatively affects worker productivity, increases absenteeism, and adds both direct and indirect health care costs. But the flip side of that equation is that improving air quality has measurable impacts to the wider economy. The EPA published a study that calculated the economic benefits of each metric ton of particulate matter that didn’t end up in the atmosphere, broken down by sector, including utilities.

SectorBenefits per metric ton
Residential Woodstoves$429,220
Refineries$333,938
Industrial Boilers$174,229
Oil and Natural Gas Transmission$125,227
Electricity Generating Units$124,319
Oil and Natural Gas$88,838

At the same time, the EPA recently updated a cost-benefit analysis of the Clean Air Act, the main piece of federal legislation governing air quality, and found that between 1990 and 2020 it cost the economy roughly $65 billion, but also provided $2 trillion in benefits.

Benefit to Business

But that’s at the macroeconomic level, so what about for individual businesses?

For one, employees like to breathe clean air and will choose to work somewhere else, given a choice. A 2022 Deloitte case study revealed that nearly 70% of highly-skilled workers said air quality was a significant factor in choosing which city to live and work in.

At the same time, air quality can impact employer-sponsored health care premiums, by reducing the overall health of the risk pool. And since insurance premiums averaged $7,590 per year in 2022 for a single employee, and rose to $21,931 for a family, that can add up fast.

Consumers are also putting their purchase decisions through a green lens, while ESG, triple-bottom-line, and impact investing are putting the environment front and center for many investors.

And if the carrot isn’t enough for some businesses, there is the stick. The EPA recently gave vehicle engine manufacturer Cummins nearly two billion reasons to help improve air quality, in a settlement the agency is calling “the largest civil penalty in the history of the Clean Air Act and the second largest environmental penalty ever.”

Learn how the National Public Utilities Council is working toward the future of sustainable electricity.

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Emissions

Visualized: Which Countries Capture the Most Carbon?

This voronoi depicts the countries that capture the most carbon globally in 2023, with data from Rystad Energy.

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The preview image for a Voronoi depicting the carbon capture capacity by country.

Visualized: Which Countries Capture the Most Carbon?

In 2023, most carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS) capacity came from only two countries, which captured 33 million metric tons combined. However, according to the IEA, we must remove one billion metric tons of carbon annually to reach the net zero target by 2050.

We’ve taken data from The Energy Institute’s 2024 Statistical Review of World Energy to make this voronoi graphic, created in partnership with the National Public Utilities Council, showing which countries had the highest carbon capture capacity in 2023.

The Leaders in Capturing Carbon

In 2023, the U.S. and Brazil led the way on carbon capture with 60% of all global capacity combined. Although Brazil’s carbon capture comes from one single plant, the U.S. has more individual plants than any other country.

CountryCapture Capacity, Mt Per Year (2023)Capture Capacity, Share (2023)
🇺🇸 U.S.22.540.9%
🇧🇷 Brazil10.619.3%
🇨🇦 Canada4.07.3%
🇦🇺 Australia4.07.3%
🇨🇳 China3.56.4%
🇶🇦 Qatar2.34.1%
🇳🇴 Norway1.73.1%
🇸🇦 Saudi Arabia1.32.4%
🇩🇿 Algeria1.22.2%
🇷🇺 Russia0.40.8%
Rest of the World3.56.2%
Total55100%

The largest growth in carbon capture capacity year-over-year came from China, whose capacity more than tripled from 1.1 to 3.5 Mt.

The Technology

All models for reaching climate targets involve significant amounts of CCUS. The technology is considered a necessity due to the existing amounts of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere and the sectors that won’t soon be electrified, such as air travel.

The primary CCUS technology is post-combustion, which power plants primarily use to separate carbon from the exhaust. Pre-combustion capture refers to removing CO₂ from fossil fuels before combustion is completed.

According to the International Energy Agency, calcium looping is another promising separation technology under development. It removes carbon dioxide from the flue gases of a cement plant using a calcium oxide sorbent and has the potential to decarbonize cement manufacturing.

Reaching Net Zero

The world’s annual CCUS capacity in 2023 amounted to a total of 55 million metric tons. However, that capacity must increase to over one billion metric tons to achieve net zero by 2050.

In 2023, the annual growth of global CCUS capacity was 6.6%. At that pace, we will not reach the net zero target for carbon capture until 2070. To reach the net zero target for carbon capture by 2050, the annual carbon capacity growth rate must almost double to at least 11% per year.

However, some countries will need more than others, as only one-third of CO₂ is projected to come from advanced economies.

The IEA cites cost as the main reason the CCUS industry falls short but insists reaching net zero is nearly impossible without it. Thus, the IEA urges the public sector to step in where private funding falls short.

Learn how the National Public Utilities Council is working toward the future of sustainable electricity.

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Decarbonization

Visualized: Emission Reduction Targets by Country in 2024

This infographic shows the greenhouse gas emissions targets of all countries and their target years with data from Net Zero Tracker.

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The preview image for an infographic showing the greenhouse gas emissions for all countries around the globe and their target years compared to 2021 with data from Net Zero Tracker.

Visualized: Emission Reduction Targets by Country in 2024

Since 2021, another 40 countries have established climate goals for 2030. However, the path to net zero remains uneven.

With average national warming already 1.81°C above pre-industrial levels, the international pressure for countries to cut emissions faster and deeper is mounting. So where do countries stand today on their targets?

We’ve partnered with the National Public Utilities Council to answer just this question, using the latest national emission target data from Net Zero Tracker.

A Spotlight on Major Players

The largest countries and richest economies typically emit the most greenhouse gases and thus have the most crucial targets.

CountryEnd TargetEnd Target YearNew Commitment
BeninNet zero2000Achieved
BhutanCarbon negative2030Achieved
ComorosNet zero2050Achieved
GabonCarbon neutral(ity)2050Achieved
GuyanaNet zero2050Achieved
SurinameNet zero2050Achieved
AlbaniaEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
AlgeriaReduction v. business-as-usual (BAU)2030Not legally binding
BarbadosCarbon neutral(ity)2030Not legally binding
BelarusEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
BotswanaEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
BruneiEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
CameroonReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
CongoReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
Côte d'IvoireReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
CubaOther2030Not legally binding
Czech RepublicEmissions reduction target2030In law
DominicaCarbon neutral(ity)2030Not legally binding
EgyptOther2030Not legally binding
El SalvadorAbsolute emissions target2030Not legally binding
EswatiniReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
GuatemalaEmissions reduction target2030In law
HondurasReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
IranOther2030In law
IraqOther2030Not legally binding
JamaicaEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
JordanReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
KenyaReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
LiechtensteinEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
MacedoniaEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
MaldivesNet zero2030In law
MauritaniaCarbon neutral(ity)2030Not legally binding
MexicoReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
MoldovaEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
MongoliaEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
MontenegroEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
MoroccoReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
North KoreaReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
ParaguayReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
PhilippinesReduction v. BAU2030Not legally binding
PolandEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
QatarEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
San MarinoEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
SerbiaEmissions reduction target2030In law
TajikistanEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
TurkmenistanEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
UzbekistanEmissions intensity target2030Not legally binding
VenezuelaEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
ZimbabweEmissions reduction target2030Not legally binding
BermudaOther2035Not legally binding
FinlandClimate neutral2035In law
Antigua and BarbudaNet zero2040Not legally binding
AustriaClimate neutral2040In law
Cayman IslandsOther2040Not legally binding
IcelandCarbon neutral(ity)2040In law
MyanmarNet zero2040Not legally binding
PalestineOther2040Not legally binding
DenmarkNet zero2045Not legally binding
GermanyClimate neutral2045In law
NepalNet zero2045Not legally binding
SwedenNet zero2045In law
AfghanistanNet zero2050Not legally binding
AndorraCarbon neutral(ity)2050Not legally binding
AngolaNet zero2050Not legally binding
ArgentinaNet zero2050Not legally binding
ArmeniaClimate neutral2050Not legally binding
AustraliaNet zero2050In law
AzerbaijanEmissions reduction target2050Not legally binding
BangladeshNet zero2050Not legally binding
BelgiumCarbon neutral(ity)2050Not legally binding
BelizeNet zero2050Not legally binding
Bosnia and HerzegovinaEmissions reduction target2050Not legally binding
BrazilCarbon neutral(ity)2050Not legally binding
BulgariaNet zero2050Not legally binding
Burkina FasoNet zero2050Not legally binding
BurundiNet zero2050Not legally binding
CambodiaCarbon neutral(ity)2050Not legally binding
CanadaNet zero2050In law
Cape VerdeNet zero2050Not legally binding
Central African RepublicNet zero2050Not legally binding
ChadNet zero2050Not legally binding
ChileCarbon neutral(ity)2050In law
ColombiaCarbon neutral(ity)2050In law
Cook IslandsCarbon neutral2050Not legally binding
Costa RicaNet zero2050Not legally binding
CroatiaClimate neutral2050In law
CyprusClimate neutral2050In law
Democratic Republic of the CongoNet zero2050Not legally binding
DjiboutiNet zero2050Not legally binding
Dominican RepublicNet zero2050Not legally binding
EcuadorZero carbon2050Not legally binding
Equatorial GuineaEmissions reduction target2050Not legally binding
EritreaNet zero2050Not legally binding
EstoniaZero emissions2050Not legally binding
EthiopiaNet zero2050Not legally binding
European UnionClimate neutral2050In law
FijiNet zero2050In law
FranceNet zero2050In law
GeorgiaClimate neutral2050Not legally binding
GreeceClimate neutral2050In law
GrenadaNet zero2050Not legally binding
GuineaNet zero2050Not legally binding
Guinea-BissauNet zero2050Not legally binding
HaitiNet zero2050Not legally binding
HungaryNet zero2050In law
IrelandClimate neutral2050In law
IsraelNet zero2050Not legally binding
ItalyCarbon neutral(ity)2050Not legally binding
JapanCarbon neutral(ity)2050In law
KiribatiNet zero2050Not legally binding
KyrgyzstanCarbon neutral(ity)2050Not legally binding
LaosNet zero2050Not legally binding
LatviaCarbon neutral(ity)2050Not legally binding
LebanonNet zero2050Not legally binding
LesothoNet zero2050Not legally binding
LiberiaNet zero2050Not legally binding
LithuaniaNet zero2050Not legally binding
LuxembourgNet zero2050In law
MadagascarNet zero2050Not legally binding
MalawiNet zero2050Not legally binding
MalaysiaNet zero2050Not legally binding
MaliNet zero2050Not legally binding
MaltaClimate neutral2050Not legally binding
Marshall IslandsNet zero2050Not legally binding
MauritiusNet zero2050Not legally binding
MicronesiaNet zero2050Not legally binding
MonacoCarbon neutral(ity)2050Not legally binding
MozambiqueNet zero2050Not legally binding
NamibiaNet zero2050Not legally binding
NauruNet zero2050Not legally binding
NetherlandsEmissions reduction target2050In law
New ZealandNet zero2050In law
NicaraguaNet zero2050Not legally binding
NigerNet zero2050Not legally binding
NiueNet zero2050Not legally binding
NorwayEmissions reduction target2050In law
OmanNet zero2050Not legally binding
PakistanNet zero2050Not legally binding
PalauNet zero2050Not legally binding
PanamaNet zero2050Not legally binding
Papua New GuineaNet zero2050Not legally binding
PeruNet zero2050Not legally binding
PortugalCarbon neutral(ity)2050In law
RomaniaNet zero2050Not legally binding
RwandaNet zero2050Not legally binding
Saint Kitts and NevisNet zero2050Not legally binding
Saint LuciaNet zero2050Not legally binding
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesNet zero2050Not legally binding
SamoaNet zero2050Not legally binding
Sao Tome and PrincipeNet zero2050Not legally binding
SenegalNet zero2050Not legally binding
SeychellesNet zero2050Not legally binding
Sierra LeoneNet zero2050Not legally binding
SingaporeNet zero2050Not legally binding
SlovakiaNet zero2050In law
SloveniaNet zero2050Not legally binding
Solomon IslandsNet zero2050Not legally binding
SomaliaNet zero2050Not legally binding
South AfricaNet zero2050Not legally binding
South KoreaNet zero2050In law
South SudanNet zero2050Not legally binding
SpainClimate neutral2050In law
Sri LankaCarbon neutral(ity)2050Not legally binding
SudanNet zero2050Not legally binding
SwitzerlandNet zero2050In law
TanzaniaNet zero2050Not legally binding
The BahamasNet zero2050Not legally binding
The GambiaNet zero2050Not legally binding
Timor-LesteNet zero2050Not legally binding
TogoNet zero2050Not legally binding
TongaNet zero2050Not legally binding
Trinidad and TobagoNet zero2050Not legally binding
TunisiaCarbon neutral(ity)2050Not legally binding
TuvaluNet zero2050Not legally binding
UgandaNet zero2050Not legally binding
United Arab EmiratesNet zero2050Not legally binding
United KingdomNet zero2050In law
United States of AmericaNet zero2050In law
UruguayNet zero2050Not legally binding
VanuatuNet zero2050Not legally binding
Vatican CityCarbon Neutral2050Not legally binding
VietnamNet zero2050Not legally binding
YemenNet zero2050Not legally binding
ZambiaNet zero2050Not legally binding
BahrainNet zero2060Not legally binding
ChinaCarbon neutral(ity)2060Not legally binding
IndonesiaNet zero2060Not legally binding
KazakhstanCarbon neutral(ity)2060Not legally binding
KuwaitCarbon neutral(ity)2060Not legally binding
Russian FederationCarbon neutral(ity)2060Not legally binding
Saudi ArabiaNet zero2060Not legally binding
TürkiyeNet zero2053Not legally binding
UkraineCarbon neutral(ity)2060Not legally binding
GhanaNet zero2070Not legally binding
IndiaNet zero2070Not legally binding
NigeriaNet zero2070In law
ThailandNet zero2065Not legally binding
BoliviaNo targetN/ANone
LibyaNo targetN/ANone
Syrian Arab RepublicNo targetN/ANone

The United States has an interim goal of a 50-52% reduction in emissions below 2005 levels by 2030, with a net zero target set for 2050.

Their primary economic rival, China, is focused on peaking its CO₂ emissions by 2030 instead of reducing them. Their net zero target, on the other hand, is currently set for 2060.

The European Union requires all 27 member states to reduce emissions 55% by 2030, with a net-zero goal for 2050.

Australia, which is among the top emitters per capita because of its fossil fuel usage, aims to reduce emissions by 43% from 2005 levels by 2030, while their net zero target is set for 2050.

Ambitious Climate Leaders and Laggards

While Comoros, Bhutan, Gabon, Suriname, and Guyana claim to have already achieved net zero, several major countries lack commitment.

Russia, one of the world’s largest polluters, has a net zero target set for 2060. Several other top-emitting countries, such as India and Indonesia, have net zero targets that also do not meet the Paris Climate Accord timeline of net zero by 2050. Their net-zero commitments are targeted at 2070 and 2060, respectively.

Iran is the only one of the top 10 largest emitting nations without a net zero target. However, it has an interim target of reducing emissions 3.45% by 2030.

Finland leads all countries with a legally binding net zero target set for the ambitious year 2035. Germany, a more populous nation, is also topping the Paris Climate Accord timeline, enshrining its net zero target into law for 2045.

The global race to net zero is ongoing, with countries at various stages of commitment. While significant progress has been made, many of the world’s largest emitters have yet to commit to net zero emission goals aligned with the Paris Climate Accord.

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